1999年3月

The Relative Merits (and Weaknessses) of Presidential, Parliamentary and Semi-Presidential Systems: The Background to Constitutional Reform

研究論文 Research Article

Richard Gunther
Richard Gunther

61-92

就總統制、半總統制及內閣制的比較研究顯示，無一制度可以同時完全滿足制度運作的多重目標：衝突管理與體系維持丶政策革新與果斷丶政策一致性丶社群的代表性、少數者權利的保障及參與決策。集權制（不管是內閣制中的一黨組閣或是總統制中的合一政府）有政策易成之利，但是可能導致多數者任意而爲，政策急劇改變，侵害少數者的權利，從而加深衝突並危及政治體的穩定。分權制（多黨聯合內閣及分裂的總統制政府）無政策易成之利，但是有利於共識的形成、長期政策的一致性、減少衝突及代表較廣大的利益群。半總統制並非如預想的，是內閣制及總統制的折衷。其在重要成員的表現上，往往相當不穩定而不可預測。總統制與內閣制的實際運作成效，受到第一階結構與某些第二階制度間互動影響極大—最重要的是，選舉法（從而其政黨的結構）、聯邦或單一國家結構、紛爭解決機構的獨立性（法院及重要的管制機關） － 另外就是民主制度在當地深化的程度。

A comparative study of presidential, semi-presidential and parlia­mentary systems indicates that no single institutional form can simulta­neously maximize the achievement of all relevant objectives of institu­tional performance: conflict regulation and system maintenance, policy innovation and decisiveness, policy coherence and consistency, represen­tation of social groups, protection of vital minority interests, and access to decision-makers. Concentration-of-power systems (either single-party majority governments in parliamentary systems or "unified" government in presidential systems) promote decisiveness in policy making, but may lead to majoritarian, winner-take-all behavior that can intensify conflict and destabilize a polity, lead to radical policy shifts (policy instability), and violate minority rights. Diffusion-of-power systems (broad, multipar­ty coalition governments or "divided" government in presidential sys­tems) are less prone to decisive policy-making, but are more conducive to consensus-building, policy consistency over time, the mitigation of con­flict, and the representation of a broad array of interests. Semi-presi-dential systems, rather than representing a "compromise" between presidentialism and parliamentary systems, are often unstable and un­predictable with regard to the performance of key actors. The perfor­mance of presidential vs. parliamentary systems is greatly affected by the interaction of those "first tier" structures with certain "second tier" institutions—most importantly, electoral laws (and, consequently, the structure of party systems), federal vs. centralized state structures, and the degree of partisan bias of "arbitral" institutions (courts and key regulatory bodies)一and by the extent to which the democratic system is consolidated.

半總統制, 總統制, 內閣制, 比較政治制度
semi-presidentialism, presidentialism, parliamentary system, comparative political institutions

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